Kriminologi

Daftar Nilai UAS Kriminologi 2011/2012 Kelas A, B dan C

2012-01-26T10:18:00.001+07:00

Kloter terakhir, daftar nilai UAS Kriminologi 2011/2012 Kelas A, B dan C akhirnya dirilis. Nilainya sangat menggembirakan, karena dari sekitar 120 peserta ujian akhir semester, tidak sampai 5 % yang memperoleh nilai di bawah B. 95% nilai peserta ujian akhir semester kriminologi di atas B.

Selamat buat kawan-kawan, lunas sudah hutang saya perihal penilaian, selamat berlibur, selamat menunggu nilai yang lain, semoga hasilnya juga tidak kalah memuaskan dari ujian kriminologi. Sekali lagi selamat, dan sampai kita berjumpa litan di semester depan...^^

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Sosiologi Kriminal

2011-12-07T06:06:00.000+07:00

Di dalam pengelompokan teori berdasarkan faktor individu, telah dijelaskan secara panjang lebar, bahwa faktor penyebab terjadinya kejahatan atau perilaku menyimpang adalah adanya perbedaan dalam bentuk fisik serta mental manusia, sehingga karena perbedaan itulah menyebabkan seseorang melakukan kejahatan. Sosiologi kriminal sama sekali menolak anggapan, bahwa faktor penyebab kejahatan adalah karena adanya perbedaan dalam bentuk fisik maupun mental manusia. Sosiologi kriminal memiliki sudut pandang yang berbeda dalam menganalisa faktor-faktor penyebab kejahatan. Di dalam pengelompokan sosiologi kriminal dapat dibagi lagi ke dalam kelompok-kelompok kecil antara lain, teori-teori Strain, teori-teori penyimpangan budaya serta teori-teori kontrol sosial.
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Sosio-Psikologi Kriminal

2011-11-30T01:01:00.001+07:00

Tidak banyak literatur yang membahas tentang sosio-psikologi kriminal, atau teori-teori tentang faktor penyebab kejahatan berdasarkan faktor sosial dan psikologi. Beberapa literatur memasukkan kategori teori-teori seperti yang akan dibahas di sini dalam kategori penyebab kejahatan berdasarkan faktor psikologis. Teori-teori apa saja yang dapat dikategorikan ke dalam sosio-psikologi kriminal?

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Psikologi Kriminal

2011-11-01T14:53:00.000+07:00

Berbicara tentang psikologi kriminal sebagai salah satu tipe teori kriminologi berdasarkan faktor individu manusia, maka kita tidak pernah lepas dari apa yang namanya keturunan dan bawaan, maka dari itu memulai pembahasan tentang psikologi kriminal kita berbicara tentang genotype dan phenotype. Dua hal tersebut yang akan mempengaruhi apakan ada kaitannya antara perbuatan manusia dengan keturunan atau bawaan, atau dengan apa yang disebut dengan kepribadian.

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Body Types Theories

2011-10-25T22:45:00.000+07:00

Berbicara tentang teori-teori tentang penyebab kejahatan, mau tidak mau, suka tidak suka, setuju tidak setuju pasti akan dibahas pertama kali adalah Body Types Theories atau teori tipe fisik. Secara singkat, teori-teori ini menjelaskan, bahwa faktor penyebab manusia melakukan kejahatan adalah ada yang berbeda dengan struktur tubuhnya dibandingkan orang lain yang tidak melakukan kejahatan. Jika membicarakan tentang teori tipe fisik, maka kali pertama yang akan diperkenalkan adalah bapak kriminologi modern, Cesare Lombrosso.

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Aliran-Aliran dalam Kriminologi

2011-10-12T08:34:00.000+07:00

Perkembangan kriminologi ditandai dengan munculnya aliran-aliran yang beragam dan berbeda-beda satu dengan yang lain. Pada awal kemunculannya, tokoh-tokoh seperti Beccaria, Bentham, Lombrosso, Emile Durkheim tidak mengklaim dirinya sebagai tokoh aliran tertentu, hanya saja, para penganutnya yang kemudian mengelompok-kelompokkan dirinya dalam sekat-sekat yang disebut dengan aliran. Tujuan adanya aliran jelas untuk mempermudah dalam mempelajari kriminologi, namun sisi negatifnya selalu ada, diantaranya yaitu subjektifitas untuk masuk dalam aliran tertentu dan secara tidak objektif dalam menilai aliran yang lain. Perbedaan minor dalam pemikiran diperuncing untuk dikotak-kotakkan dalam sekat-sekat aliran.

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Sejarah Perkembangan Kriminologi

2011-09-28T22:14:00.002+07:00

Di dalam literatur-literatur tentang kriminologi, mahzab yang timbul di Italia memegang peranan yang cukup penting dalam perkembangan kriminologi. Akan tetapi sebelum adanya mahzab Italia, atau yang lebih lazim dikenal dengan istilah Anthropologi Kriminil ini ada bagaimanakah pandangan manusia tentang kriminologi.

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Kuliah Perdana TA 2011/2012

2011-09-20T13:51:00.002+07:00

Salam jumpa kawan-kawan. Setelah posting yang lalu membahas tentang perkuliahan perdana Hukum Acara Pidana, maka pada kesempatan kedua postingan ini adalah kuliah perdana mata kuliah kriminologi. Selayaknya kuliah perdana sebelumnya, maka postingan kuliah perdana kriminologi ini berisi tentang pokok bahasan dan pendahuluan yang berisi tentang latar belakang kriminologi sebagai mata kuliah di fakultas hukum, ruang lingkup kriminologi, definisi kriminologi dan tujuan mempelajari kriminologi.

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Kekerasan Anak dalam Perspektif Kriminologi

2009-03-26T20:07:00.005+07:00

Indonesia memang negara musiman, musim bencana, musim pembunuhan mutilasi, musim narkoba, musim video porno, musim pelawak jadi pelawak Senayan sampai musim kekerasan yang dilakukan oleh anak yang direkam dalam kamera handphone.
Cukuplah kita membahas tentang musiman-musiman yang lain, dan sekarang yang perlu kita bahas adalah musim kekerasan yang dilakukan oleh anak (pelajar khususnya) yang direkam dalam kamera handphone plus dipublikasikan.

Dialog dalam Apa kabar Indonesia pagi hari ini, 25 Maret 2009 membahas tentang fenomena ini, kalo memang ini adalah sebuah fenomena. Dua pakar yang berkompeten di bidangnya masing-masing, yaitu pengamat pendidikan dan Kepala Pusat Informasi Humas Depdiknas dipertemukan dengan perspektifnya masing-masing.

Kepala Pusat Informasi Humas Depdiknas menuding manajerial kepala sekolah yang patut diperbaiki, mengingat munculnya permasalahan kekerasan yang dilakukan oleh pelajar di lingkungan sekolah merupakan tanggung jawab kepala sekolah selaku pimpinan tertinggi dalam institusi tersebut. Kepala sekolah harusnya memiliki kebijakan bersifat preventif untuk menanggulangi kekerasan yang dilakukan oleh pelajar dalam lingkungannya. Kebijakan tersebut dapat berupa melarang siswanya membawa handphone saat mengikuti pelajaran, atau melarang membawa handphone dalam lingkungan sekolah.
Lain halnya dengan pengamat pendidikan, yang tak perlu disebut namanya. Permasalahan utama terletak pada labilnya emosi pelajar sehingga kekerasan muncul dan secara kebetulan ada media untuk merekam dan mempublikasikannya. Jadi adanya kebijakan yang dilakukan dengan melarang membawa handphone ke lingkungan sekolah tidak mencegah permasalahan utama yang terjadi, melainkan hanya mencegah efek publikasinya saja. Kekerasan yang dilakukan pelajar tetap tidak teratasi. Lain halnya kalo berkaitan dengan video porno yang beredar dikalangan pelajar melalui handphone. Untuk mencegah pelajar melihat video porno melalui handphone, kepala sekolah bisa membuat kebijakan melarang muridnya membawa handphone di lingkungan sekolah plus razia berkala untuk upaya kontrolnya.

Perspektif diantara keduanya sangat berbeda, dan tidak ketemu kalo diperbincangkan, karena di satu sisi menekankan pada kebijakan yang tidak tepat sasaran, di sisi lain penekanannya pada pembinaan mental pelajarnya. Perspektifku berbeda dari keduanya, walaupun ada kecenderungan mengarah pada kondisi psikologis pelajar, tapi bukan pembinaan mental solusinya.

Menurutku, dengan menggunakan tinjauan kriminologis, para pelajar yang melakukan kekerasan bukan merupakan fenomena baru dan menarik. Dari zaman saya menjadi pelajar, baik menengah pertama maupun atas, kurang lebih 10 sampai 15 tahun yang lalu, kekerasan pelajar sudah merupakan hal yang lumrah. Bedanya, 10 sampai 15 tahun yang lalu, informasi kekerasan pelajar hanya menular dari mulut ke mulut sedangkan sekarang dari bluetooth ke bluetooth. Itu saja, tidak perlu kita besar-besarkan. Akan tetapi yang menarik dan perlu dikaji dengan perspektif kriminologis adalah, mengapa para pelajar tersebut melakukan kekerasan.

Kalau kita bertanya mengapa para pelajar melakukan kekerasan, jelas perspektif Kepala Pusat Informasi Humas Depdiknas tidak menjawab permasalahan tersebut. Manajerial seperti apa yang dapat menyelami kondisi psikologis siswa? Apakah pembinaan moral yang kurang? Melalui apa pembinaan moralnya dan seperti apa bentuk kontrolnya? Jelas perspektif itu tidak tepat sasaran. Sedangkan perspektif sang pengamat pendidikan lebih dekat sasaran. Mengapa pelajar melakukan kekerasan? Karena labilnya mental pelajar? Pertanyaan berikutnya, kenapa mental tersebut labil dan bagaimana mengatasinya? Pembinaan mental sebagai solusi yang ditawarkanpun dirasa kurang lengkap, atau tidak cukup.

Dalam perspektif kriminologis, permasalahan tersebut dapat terjawab. Mengapa pelajar melakukan kekerasan? Kriminologi menjawabnya dengan teori pembelajaran social (social learning theory). Seseorang dalam melakukan suatu tindakan akan dipengaruhi oleh dua hal, yaitu pengamatan dan pengalaman. A. Bandura dan Gerrard Patterson menyebutnya sebagai observational learning dan direct experience learning. Kekerasan yang dilakukan oleh pelajar menurut teori ini, disebabkan karena mereka mengamati hal-hal disekitarnya, orang tuanya melakukan KDRT atau tontonan televisi dan film yang mengumbar kekerasan serta mungkin ada pengalaman kekerasan langsung yang dilakukan terhadap mereka, baik melalui orang tua (KDRT) ataupun lingkungan pertumbuhannya.

Social Learning Theory ini didukung pula dengan teori perkembangan moral atau Moral Development Theory yang dikembangkan oleh Lawrence Kohlberg. Menurut teori ini, perkembangan moral manusia berlangsung selama tiga tahap:
1.preconventional stage (usia 9- 11 tahun)
2.conventional level (usia 12-20 tahun)
3.postconventional level (usia >21 tahun)
pelajar menengah pertama atau atas termasuk dalam kategori conventional level dimana dalam tahapan ini seorang individu meyakini dan mengadopsi nilai yang berkembang di masyarakat atau lingkungan sekitarnya. Jika lingkungan itu buruk, maka pengaruh yang buruk akan dengan mudah terserap oleh individu itu.

Jadi, usia pelajar adalah usia yang rentan untuk melakukan apapun sesuai dengan apa yang dipelajarinya melalui pengamatan dan pengalaman yang terjadi di sekitarnya. Terlepas dari permasalahan manajerial dan pembinaan moral, ada suatu unsure baru yang masuk dan perlu dipertimbangkan, yaitu kualitas tontonan usia pelajar di televisi sebagai salah satu sumber informasi. Jika kita perhatikan, kualitas sinetron, langsung saja saya menjudge sebagai bentuk pembodohan. Kenapa gitu? Kalau kita perhatikan, unsure kekerasan dan percintaan adalah unsure yang mendominasi selain unsure mistis yang semakin membawa pemuda kita ke zaman kegelapan kembali. Entah apa yang ada di dalam pikiran para produser sinetron itu, suatu hal yang tak kumengerti dalam Republik ini.

Kekerasan yang dipertunjukkan dalam sinetron saya anggap memiliki sumbangsih yang besar terhadap tingkah laku para penontonnya, dalam hal ini pelajar yang berada dalam tahapan conventional stage sehingga mereka berdasarkan observational learning merekam setiap adegan dan mempraktikkan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Dalam benak mereka, karena itu diperbolehkan ditelevisi sebagai salah satu penyebar informasi, maka dianggapnya itu adalah hal yang tidak dilarang di masyarakat. Akibatnya, terjadilah dalam dunia nyata apa yang seharusnya tidak terjadi, bahkan di dunia film.

Permasalahan merekam dalam kamera handphone merupakan suatu bentuk antisocial baru yang berkembang dalam masyarakat. Mereka tidak perduli dengan kekerasan itu, bahkan mengabadikannya dalam sebuah media untuk ditonton dan disebarluaskan. Cara-cara yang biasanya ada di televisi-televisi melalui sinetron bodoh, yang ditonton oleh masyarakat yang ingin menjadi bodoh. Suatu bentuk imitasi sempurna yang dilakukan oleh pelajar kita.

Permasalahan KDRT sebagai pengalaman yang mungkin dialami oleh pelajar, undang-undang sudah menjadi alat preventif maupun represif. Bagaimana dengan persoalan sinetron pembodohan itu? Komisi Penyiaran Indonesia santai-santai aja melihat muatan pembodohan itu. Lembaga sensor tutup mata, tutup telinga dan tutup mulut persis seperti monyet kebajikan. Lalu siapa yang akan menyelamatkan anak bangsa dari moral penuh kekerasan? Majelis Ulama kah? Atau Front Pembela Islam (FPI) kah?

Suatu hal yang semakin tak kumengerti dalam Republik ini…

File Slide Produser

2007-09-24T11:38:00.001+07:00

Perkuliahan jarak jauh bisa dilakukan dengan perkembangan tekhnologi. Download mata kuliah Kriminologi Pokok Bahasan Biologi Kriminal di sini

Penjelasan Psikologis Atas Kejahatan

2007-09-05T15:42:00.002+07:00

Empat alur penelitian yang berbeda telah menguji hubungan antara kepribadian dengan kejahatan. Alur penelitian tersebut adalah:
1. Melihat pada perbedaan-perbedaan antara struktur kepribadian dari penjahat dan bukan penjahat;
2. Memprediksi tingkah laku;
3. Menguji tingkatan dimana dinamika-dinamika kepribadian normal beroperasi dalam diri penjahat;
4. Menghitung perbedaan-perbedaan individual antara tipe-tipe dan kelompok-kelompok penjahat.

TEORI PSIKOANALISA
Teori psikoanalisa dikemukakan oleh Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939). Menurut Freud manusia memiliki tiga sifat dasar, yaitu superego (hati nurani), ego (penengah antara hati nurani dengan nafsu) serta id (keinginan yang ingin dipenuhi atau nafsu).

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Penjelasan Biologis Atas Kejahatan

2007-09-05T15:40:00.002+07:00

Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857), sosiolog Perancis membawa pengaruh penting bagi tokoh-tokoh mahzab positifis (termasuk diantaranya adalah biologi positifis). Comte berkata, ”There could be no real knowledge of social phenomena unless it was based on a positivist (scientific) approach” (Topo Santoso dan Eva A. Zulfa, 2001: 36).

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Aliran dalam Kriminologi

2007-09-05T15:39:00.001+07:00

Aliran atau dikenal dengan istilah School dalam Kriminologi dapat diklasifikasikan dalam dua golongan atau kelompok besar. Aliran tersebut adalah Human Nature dan Sosiological Crime.

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Garis Besar Sejarah Perkembangan Kriminologi

2007-09-05T15:36:00.001+07:00

Di dalam literatur-literatur tentang kriminologi, mahzab yang timbul di Italia memegang peranan yang cukup penting dalam perkembangan kriminologi (Ida Andariah, 1983:9). Akan tetapi sebelum adanya mahzab Italia, atau yang lebih lazim dikenal dengan istilah Anthropologi Kriminil ini ada, bagaimanakah pandangan manusia tentang kriminologi.

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Kriminologi Sebagai Cabang Ilmu

2007-09-05T15:33:00.001+07:00

Kriminologi adalah suatu cabang ilmu yang boleh dikatakan bukan ’barang’ baru. Akan tetapi ilmu ini adalah ilmu yang sangat langka dalam perkembangannya. Perkembangan kriminologi terpusat dalam dua kutub, yaitu negara Eropa Kontinental dan negara Anglo Saxon. Akan tetapi perkembangan tersebut bersebrangan satu dengan yang lainnya.

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Kriminologi Kritis

2006-11-23T10:43:00.003+07:00

Marxist criminology is one of the schools of criminology. It parallels the work of the functionalist school which focuses on what produces stability and continuity in society but, unlike the functionalists, it adopts a predefined political philosophy. As in conflict criminology, it focuses on why things change, identifying the disruptive forces in industrialised societies, and describing how society is divided by power, wealth, prestige, and the perceptions of the world. "The shape and character of the legal system in complex societies can be understood as deriving form the conflicts inherent in the structure of these societies which are stratified economically and politically" (Chambliss, 1971, p3). It is concerned with the causal relationships between society and crime, i.e. to establish a critical understanding of how the immediate and structural social environment gives rise to crime and criminogenic conditions.

Karl Marx argued that the law is the mechanism by which one social class, usually referred to as the "ruling class", keeps all the other classes in a disadvantaged position. Thus, this school uses a Marxist lens through which, inter alia, to consider the criminalisation process, and by which explain why some acts are defined as deviant whereas others are not. It is therefore interested in political crime, state crime, and state-corporate crime.

Discussion
A convincing case can be made that Marxism provides one of the best explanations of many phenomena identified within societies, but the politics of the world has changed and Marxism is no longer the major social movement for liberation from oppression that it used to be, so it is argued that Marxism's conceptual apparatus has become less relevant. However, Marxism provides a systematic theoretical basis upon which to interrogate social structural arrangements, and the hypothesis that economic power is translated into political power substantially accounts for the general disempowerment of the majority who live in the modern state and the limitations of political discourse. Hence, whether directly or indirectly, it informs much of the research into social phenomena not only in criminology, but also in semiotics and the other disciplines which explore the structural relationships of power, knowledge, meaning, and positional interests within society.
All criminologists agree that for a society to function efficiently, social order is necessary and that conformity is induced through a socialisation process. "Law" is the label given to one of the means used to enforce the interests of the state. Hence, because each state is sovereign, the law can be used for any purpose. It is also common ground that, whether the society is meritocratic, democratic or autocratic, a small group emerges to lead. The reason for this group's emergence may be their ability to use power more effectively, or simple expediency in that, as population size grows, the delegation of decision-making powers to a group representative of the majority leads to more efficiency. Marxists are critical of the ideas, values and norms of capitalist ideology, and characterise the modern state as being under the control of the group that owns the means of production. For example, Chambliss (1973) examined the way in which the vagrancy laws were amended to reflect the interests of the ruling elite. He also looked at how British Colonial Law was applied in East Africa, so that the capitalist "ruling class" could profit from coffee plantations, and how the law in mediaeval England benefited feudal landowners. Similarly, Pearce (2003) looks at evidence that corporate crime is widespread but is rarely prosecuted.
These researchers assert that political power is used to reinforce economic inequality by embedding individual property rights in the law and that the resulting poverty is one of the causes of criminal activity as a means of survival. Marxists argue that a socialist society with communal ownership of the means of production would have much less crime. Indeed, Milton Mankoff asserts that there is much less crime in Western Europe than in the U.S. because Europe is more ‘Socialist’ than America. The implication of such views is that the solution to the "crime problem" is to engage in a socialist revolution.
A different issue emerges by applying Marx's theory of alienation. A proportion of crime is said to be the result of society offering only demeaning work with little sense of creativity. However, the characterisation of some crime as "working class crime" and portraying it as a response to oppression is problematic. It selectively labels crime committed by people simply on the basis of their membership of a class, without engaging in victimology to identify whether any particular class or group is most likely to be the vicim of such crime (because many criminals are disinclined to travel far, working class crime is often directed at working class people who live in the same neighbourhood). In fact, the social differentiation of crime may vary by age, class, ethnicity, gender, and locality.
Further, if anomie is a primary cause of crime, there should be a theory to explain why only some working class people commit crimes. These are existential issues. But if there is evidence that some individuals and, in some cases, entire groups are alienated from mainstream society, there should be detailed research into the effect that this has on society as a whole (see normlessness). In such research, Marxism tends to focus on societal forces rather than the motives of individuals and their dualistic capacity for both right and wrong, moral and immoral. This can lead to a less comprehensive explanation of why people exercise their autonomy by choosing to act in particular ways. By comparison, in the sociology of deviance, Robert K. Merton borrows Durkheim's concept of anomie to form the Strain Theory. Merton argues that the real problem of alienation is not created by a sudden social change, as Durkheim proposed, but rather by a social structure that holds out the same goals to all its members without giving them equal means to achieve them. It is this lack of integration between what the culture calls for and what the structure permits that causes deviant behaviour. Deviance then is a symptom of the social structure. Taylor et al intend a combination of Interactionism and Marxism as a radical alternative to previous theories to formulate a "fully social theory of deviance".
The power to label behaviour as "deviant" arises partly from the unequal distribution of power within the state, and because the judgment carries the authority of the state, it attributes greater stigma to the prohibited behaviour. This is true no matter what the political orientation of the state. All states enact laws which, to a greater or lesser extent, protect property. This may take the form of theft, or prohibit damage or trespass. Even though a theft law may not appear judgmental, a Marxist analysis of the conviction rates may detect inequalities in the way in which the law is applied. Thus, the decision whether to prosecute or to convict may be skewed by having the resources to employ a good lawyer. The same analysis may also show that the distribution of punishment for any given crime may vary according to the social class of the perpetrator. But, the law of theft exists to protect the interests of all those who own property. It does not discriminate by reference to the class of the owner. Indeed, few laws in any states are drafted to protect property interests by reference to class, and the acceptance and enforcement of laws generally depend on a consensus within the community that such laws meet local needs. In this, a comparison of the crime rates between states shows little correlation by reference to political orientation. Such correlations as do exist tend to reflect disparities between rich and poor, and features describing the development of the social and economic environment. Hence, the crimes rates are comparable in states where there are the largest disparities of wealth distribution, regardless of whether they are first, second or third world.
Individual theorists

William Adrian Bonger
Dutch criminologist, William Bonger, believed in a causal link between crime and economic and social conditions. He asserted that crime is social in origin and a normal response to prevailing cultural conditions. In more primitive societies, he contended that survivial requires more selfless altruism within the community. But once agricultural technology improved and a surplus of food was generated, systems of exchange and barter began offered the opportunity for selfishness. As capitalism emerged, there were social forces of competition and wealth, resulting in an unequal distribution of resources, avarice and individualism. Once self Interest and more egoistic impulses assert themselves, crime emerges. The poor would commit crime out of need or out of a sense of injustice. Hence, those with power exercise control and impose punishment, equating the definition of crime with harm or threat of harm to the properrty and business interests of the powerful. Although the inherent activities comprising, say, a theft, may be identical, theft by the poor will be given greater emphasis than theft by the rich. This will have two consequences: direct which will increase the pressure for survival in an unequal society, and indirect in that it will increase a sense of alienation among the poor. Crime in the streets was a result of the miserable conditions in which workers lived in competition with one another. He believed that poverty alone could not be a cause of crime but rather poverty coupled with individualism, materialism, false needs, racism, and the false masculinity of violence and domination among street thugs.

Thorsten Sellin
Sellin was a sociologist at the University of Pennsylvania and one of the pioneers of scientific criminology. His method involved a comprehensive view of the subject incorporating historical, sociological, psychological, and legal factors into the analysis. He applied both Marxism and Conflict Theory to an examination of the cultural diversity of modern industrial society. In a homogenous society, norms or codes of behaviour will emerge and become laws where enforcement is necessary to preserve the unitary culture. But where separate cultures diverge from the mainstream, those minority groups will establish their own norms. Socialisation will therefore be to the subgroup and to the mainstream norms. When laws are enacted, they will represent the norms, values and interests of the dominant cultural or ethnic group which may produce Border Culture Conflict. When the two cultures interact and one seeks to extend its influence into the other, each side is likely to react protectively. If the balance of power is relatively equal, an accommodation will usually be reached. But if the distribution of power is unequal, the everyday behaviour of the minority group may be defined as deviant. The more diversified and heterogeneous a society becomes, the greater the probability of more frequent conflict as subgroups who live by their own rules break the rules of other groups.

References
Bonger, William. (1905). Criminality and Economic Conditions.
Chambliss, W. (1973). "Elites and the Creation of Criminal Law" in Sociological Readings in the Conflict Perspective Chambliss, W. (ed.) Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. (pp430-444).
Chambliss, William J. & Mankoff, Milton (eds.) (1976) Whose Law? What Order? A Conflict Approach to Criminology. New York: John Wiley.
Chambliss, W & Seidman, R. (1971). Law, Order, and Power. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley.
Pearce, Frank. (2003). Preface to '‘Crimes of the Powerful’', Tombs, Steve & Whyte, Dave (eds.) Peter Lang Publishing, ISBN 0820456918
Pearce, Frank & Snider, Laureen (1992). "Crimes of the Powerful" special issue of The Journal of Human Justice, Vol. 3, No.2, Spring.
Pearce, Frank & Tombs, S. (1998). "Foucault, Governmentality, Marx", Journal of Social and Legal Studies, 7:4, December.
Quinney, Richard. (1974). Critique of Legal Order: Crime Control in Capitalist Society. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0765807971
Schwartz, Martin D. & Hatty, Suzanne E. (eds). (2003). Controversies in Critical Criminology. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing. ISBN 1583605215
Sellin, Thorsten. (1937). Crime in the Depression
Sellin, Thorsten. (1938) Culture Conflict and Crime. New York: Social Science Research Council.
Taylor, Ian R., Walton, Paul & Young, Jock. (1988) The New Criminology: For a Social Theory of Deviance (International Library of Sociology), Routledge. ISBN 0415034477
Wincup, Emma & Griffiths, Janis. (1999). Crime, Deviance and Social Control (Access to Sociology S), London: Hodder Arnold H&S, ISBN 0340749245

Aliran Neo Klasik

2006-11-23T10:41:00.003+07:00

Discussion
When crime and recidivism are perceived to be a problem, the first political reaction is to call for increased policing, stiffer penalties, and increased monitoring and surveillance for those released on parole. Intuitively, politicians see a correlation between the certainty and severity of punishment, and the choice whether to commit crime. The practical intention has always been to deter and, if that failed, to keep society safer for the longest possible period of time by locking the habitual offenders away in prisons (see Wilson). From the earliest theorists, the arguments were based on morality and social utility, and it was not until comparatively recently that there has been empirical research to determine whether punishment is an effective deterrent.

Social control theory
As represented in the work of Travis Hirschi, the Social Control Theory proposes that exploiting the process of socialisation and Social Learning Theory builds self-control and reduces the inclination to indulge in behaviour recognised as antisocial. It is based on Functionalist theories of crime and proposes that there are three types of control:
Direct: by which punishment is threatened or applied for wrongful behaviour, and compliance is rewarded by parents, family, and authority figures.
Indirect: by which a youth refrains from delinquency because his or her delinquent act might cause pain and disappointment to parents and others with whom he or she has close relationships.
Internal: by which a person's conscience or sense of guilt prevents him or her from engaging in delinquent acts.

Drift theory
Although it was not presented as a Social Control Theory, David Matza (1964) also adopted the concept of free will. Delinquent youth were neither compelled nor committed to their delinquent actions, but were simply less receptive to other more conventional traditions (1964:28). Thus, delinquent youth were "drifting" between criminal and non-criminal behaviour, and were relatively free to choose whether to take part in delinquency. This challenged the Strain Theory which emphasised frustration and rebelliousness against normative social values by delinquent youth. Matza did not identify any specific constraints or controls that would keep youth from drifting, but drifters were depicted as youth who have few stakes in conformity and are free to drift into delinquency. As with Hirschi, Matza was skeptical that deviancy could be explained in terms of disstinct subcutlural or contracultural value systems.
Rational choice theory
This grew out of the expected utility principle in economic theory, i.e. that people will make rational decisions based on their expectations for profit maximisation and the minimisation of losses. To that extent, it fits the model of utilitarianism as proposed by the Classical School, but its implications are doubted by the Neo-Classical School.

Modern research
Initial studies compared homicide statistics between states using and not using capital punishment, and found no evidence of deterrence (Bailey & Peterson). Studies then tested certainty as against severity of punishment, e.g. Erickson (1977). The research methodologies used are either the analysis of Official Statistics for objective indicators of correlations, and attitudinal interviews and questionnaires for subjective indicators (potential criminals will not be deterred unless they understand how the criminal justice system works). The research finds that the majority conform to the law because they subscribe to the social and moral values represented by the law (i.e. the process of socialisation is effective). Hence, at best, the threat of punishment has a not statistically insignificant effect on reported crime and the empirical evidence in support of deterrence is very limited. Raymond Paternoster's work (see bibliography [1]) demonstrates that the only statistically significant data emerges from experiential studies among those who have been through the criminal justice system (i.e. specific deterrence), but that this data on its own cannot validate general deterrence. He also finds no evidence that formal social controls are effective. Some informal social negative consequences such as the disapproval of family, loss of reputation, possible loss of employment, etc., are more significant. There is also strong evidence that increasing the rewards of conformity by providing better employment opportunities at realistic rates of pay can achieve comparable deterrent effect by giving potential offenders more to lose (Tierney:1996, 277).

References
Akers, Ronald L. (1990). "Rational Choice, Deterrence, and Social Learning Theory: The Path Not Taken". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 81(3), 653-676.
Akers, Ronald L. (1991). "Self-control as a General Theory of Crime". Journal of Quantative Criminology, 7, 201-211.
Bailey, William C. & Peterson, Ruth D. Murder, Capital Punishment, and Deterrence: A Review of the Evidence and an Examination of Police Killings. [2]
Clarke, Ronald V. & Felson, Marcus. (1993). Routine Activity and Rational Choice. Vol. 5, Advances in Criminology Theory. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, Inc.
Evans, David. T.; Cullen, Francis. S.; Burton, Velmer. S. Jr.; Dunaway, Gregory. R. & Benson, Michael. L. (1997). "The Social Consequences of Self-Control: Testing the General Theory of Crime". Criminology, 35. 475-504
Erickson, Maynard; Gibbs, Jack P. & Jenson, Garry F. (1977). "The Deterrence Doctrine and the Perceived Certainty of Legal Punishment", American Sociological Review, 42: 305- 317
Gottfredson, M. & Hirschi, Travis. (1990). A General Theory of Crime. CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804717745
Hirschi, Travis. (1969). Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley: University of California Press. (Transaction Publishers reprint edition). ISBN 0765809001
Hirschi, Travis. & Gottfredson, M. (1993). Commentary: Testing the General Theory of Crime". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30. 47-54.
LaGrange, T. C. & Silverman, R. A. (1999). "Low Self-control and Opportunity: Testing the General Theory of Crime as an Explanation for Gender Differences in Delinquency". Criminology, 37, 41-72.
Keel, R. O. (1997). Rational Choice and Deterrence Theory.
Livesey, Chris. Deviance and Social Control: New Right Realism
Matza, David. (1964). Delinquency and Drift. Transaction Publishers (reprint edition). ISBN 0887388043
Tierney, John. (1996). Criminology: Theory and Context. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0133801551
Wilson, James Q. (1983) Thinking About Crime. New York: Vintage (revised ed.). ISBN 039472917X
Wilson, James Q. & Herrnstein, Richard. (1985). Crime and Human Nature, New York: Simon and Shuster

Aliran Positivist

2006-11-23T10:37:00.004+07:00

In criminology, the Positivist School has attempted to find scientific objectivity for the measurement and quantification of criminal behaviour. As the scientific method became the major paradigm in the search for all knowledge, the Classical School's social philosophy was replaced by the quest for scientific laws that would be discovered by experts. It is divided into Biological, Psychological and Social

Biological positivism
If Charles Darwin's Theory of evolution was scientific as applied to animals, the same approach should be applied to "man" as an "animal".

Physical characteristics
Historically, medicine became interested in the problem of crime, producing studies of physiognomy (see Johann Kaspar Lavater and Franz Joseph Gall) and the science of phrenology which linked attributes of the mind to the shape of the brain as reveal through the skull. These theories were popular because society and any failures of its government were not the causes of crime. The problem lay in the propensities of individual offenders who were biologically distinguishable from law-abiding citizens. This theme was amplified by the Italian School and through the writings of Cesare Lombroso (see L'Uomo Delinquente, The Criminal Man) which identified physical characteristics associated with degeneracy demonstrating that criminals were atavistic throwbacks to an earlier evolutionary form. Charles Goring (1913) failed to corroborate the characteristics but did find criminals shorter, lighter and less intelligent, i.e. he found criminality to be "normal" rather than "pathological" (cf the work of Hooton found evidence of biological inferiority). William Sheldon identified three basic body or somatotypes (i.e. endomorphs, mesomorphs, and ectomorphs), and introduced a scale to measure where each individual was placed. He concluded that delinquents tended to mesomorphy. Modern research might link physical size and athleticism and aggression because physically stronger people have the capacity to use violence with less chance of being hurt in any retaliation. Otherwise, such early research is no longer considered valid. The development of genetics has produced another potential inherent cause of criminality, with chromosome and other genetic factors variously identified as significant to select heredity rather than environment as the cause of crime (see: nature versus nurture). Unfortunately, the evidence from family, twin, and adoption studies shows no conclusive empirical evidence to prefer either cause.

Intelligence
There are a number of reputable studies that demonstrate a link between lower intelligence and criminality. But the evidence is equivocal because studies among the prison population simply test those criminals actually caught, which might be because they failed to plan the crimes properly or because they were unable to resist interrogation techniques and admitted their crimes. If their intelligence is poor, they are also less likely to be deterred.

Other medical factors
Testosterone and adrenaline have been associated with aggression and violence, and the arousal and excited state associated with them. The excessive consumption of alcohol can lower blood sugar levels and lead to aggressiveness, and the use of chemicals in foods and drinks has been associated with hyper-activity and some criminal behaviour.

Psychological positivism
Sigmu nd Freud divided the personality into the id, the primitive biological drives, the superego, the internalised values, and the ego, memo ry, perception, and cognition. He proposed that criminal behaviour is either the result of mental illness or a weak conscience. John Bowlby proposed an attachment theory in which maternal deprivation was a factor that might lead to delinquency. This has been discounted in favour of general privation (Michael Rutter: 1981) or "broken homes" (Glueck: (1950) in which absentee or uncaring parents tend to produce badly behaved children.
Hans Eysenck (1987) stated that, "...certain types of personality may be more prone to react with anti-social or criminal behaviour to environmental factors of one kind or another." He proposed three dimensions of personality: introversion/extroversion, neutroticism, and psychoticism. For these purposes, personality is the settled framework of reference within which a person addresses the current situation and decides how to behave. Some traits will be dominant at times and then in a balanced relationship to other traits, but each person's traits will be reasonably stable and predictable (see Marshall: 1990 and Seidman:1994). Hence, once conditioned into a criminal lifestyle, the relevant personality traits are likely to persist until a countervailing conditioning force re-establishes normal social inhibitions. Some forms of criminal behaviour such as sexual offences, have been medicalised with treatment offered alongside punishment.

Social positivism
In general terms, positivism rejected the Classical Theory's reliance on free will and sought to identify positive causes that determined the propensity for criminal behaviour. Rather than biological or psychological causes, this branch of the School identifies "society" as the cause. Hence, environmental criminology and other sub-schools study the spatial distribution of crimes and offenders (see Adolphe Quetelet, who discovered that crimes rates are relatively constant, and the Chicago School which, under the leadership of Robert E. Park, viewed the city as a form of superorganism, zoned into areas engaged in a continuous process of invasion, dominance, and succession). Meanwhile, Emile Durkheim identified society as a social phenomenon, external to individuals, with crime a normal part of a healthy society. Deviancy was nothing more than "boundary setting," pushing to determine the current limits of morality and acceptability.

References
Beirne, Piers. Inventing Criminology: Essays on the Rise of ‘Homo Criminalis’. Albany: SUNY Press, 1993.
Brockway, Zebulon Reed. "The Ideal of a True Prison System for a State." In Transactions of the National Congress on Penitentiary and Reformatory Discipline, 1870, edited by E. C. Wines. Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1871. [Archive]
——————. "Prevention of Crime." In National Prison Association, Proceedings, 1901. [Archive]
Buck v. Bell, Superintendent, 274 U.S. 200 (1927). [Archive]
Deflem, Mathieu. "Ferdinand Tönnies on Crime and Society: An Unexplored Contribution to Criminological Sociology." History of the Human Sciences 12, no. 3 (1999): 87-116. [WWW]
Dugdale, Richard. The Jukes: A Study in Crime, Pauperism, and Heredity. New York: Putnam, 1877.
Ferri, Enrico. Criminal Sociology. [1884]. Revised edition. Translated from the Italian by J. I. Kelly and J. Lisle. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown, 1917. [WWW]
——————. The Positive School of Criminology; Three Lectures by Enrico Ferri. [1901]. Edited by S. E. Grupp. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1968.
Galton, Francis. Essays in Eugenics. London: Eugenics Education Society, 1909.
——————. "Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims." American Journal of Sociology 10, no. 1 (1904): 1-25. [JSTOR]
——————. Hereditary Genius. London: Macmillian, 1869.
——————. "Studies in Eugenics." American Journal of Sociology 11, no. 1 (1905): 11-25. [JSTOR]
Garland, David. "British Criminology Before 1935." The British Journal of Criminology 28 (1988): 131–47.
——————. "The Criminal and His Science: A Critical Account of the Formation of Criminology at the End of the Nineteenth Century." The British Journal of Criminology 25 (1985): 109–37.
——————. Punishment and Welfare: A History of Penal Strategies. Aldershot: Gower Publishing Company Limited, 1985.
Glueck, Sheldon, and Eleanor Glueck. 500 Criminal Careers. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1930.
——————. 500 Delinquent Women. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1934.
Goddard, Henry. H. Feeble-Mindedness. New York: Macmillan, 1914.
——————. The Kallikak Family: A Study in the Heredity of Feeble-Mindedness. New York: Macmillan, 1913. [WWW]
Goring, Charles. The English Convict: A Statistical Study. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1913.
Gould, Stephen Jay. The Mismeasure of Man. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1981.
Healy, William. The Individual Delinquent. Boston: Little, Brown, 1915.
Hobhouse, Leonard T. Social Evolution and Political Theory. New York: Columbia University Press, 1911.
Hooton, Earnest A. The American Criminal. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1939.
Lombroso, Cesare and William Ferrero. The Female Offender. London: Fisher Unwin, 1895.
Lombroso, Cesare. Crime: Its Causes and Remedies. Patterson Smith, 1912.
Lombroso-Ferrero, Gina. Criminal Man, According to the Classification of Cesare Lombroso. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1911.
Marshall, W. L.; Laws, D. R. & Barbaree, H. E. (eds.), (1990). Handbook of Sexual Assault: Issues, Theories, and Treatment of the Offender, New York, NY: Plenum Press.
Mednick, Sarnoff, Terrie Moffitt and Susan Stack, ed. The Causes of Crime: New Biological Approaches. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Rafter, Nicole Hahn. Creating Born Criminals. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997.
——————. "Psychopathy and the Evolution of Criminological Knowledge." Theoretical Criminology: 1, no. 2 (May 1997): 235-59.
Seidman, B. T., Marshall, W. L., Hudson, S., & Robertson, P. J. (1994). "An examination of intimacy and loneliness in sex offenders". Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9, 518-534.
Tönnies, Ferdinand. "The Prevention of Crime (First Article)." International Journal of Ethics 2 (1891): 51-77. [See also Deflem, above.] [JSTOR].

Aliran Klasik

2006-11-23T10:12:00.003+07:00

The Classical School in criminology is usually a reference to the eighteenth century work during the Enlightenment by the utilitarian and social contract philosophers Jeremy Bentham and Cesare Beccaria. Their interests lay in the system of criminal justice and penology and, indirectly through the proposition that "man is a calculating animal", in the causes of criminal behaviour.

The system of law, its mechanisms of enforcement and the forms of punishment used in the eighteenth century were primitive and inconsistent. Judges were not professionally trained so many of their decisions were unsatisfactory being the product of incompetence, capriciousness, corruption or political manipulation. The use of torture to extract confessions and a wide range of cruel punishments such as whipping, mutilation and public executions were commonplace. A need for legal rationality and fairness was identified and found an audience among the emerging middle classes whose economic interests lay in providing better systems for supporting national and international trade.

The social contract
John Locke considered the mechanism that had allowed monarchies to become the primary form of government. He concluded that monarchs had asserted the right to rule and enforced it either through an exercise in raw power, or through a form of contract, e.g. the feudal system had depended on the grants of estates in land as a return for services provided to the sovereign. Locke proposed that all citizens are equal, and that there is an unwritten but voluntary contract between the state and its citizens, giving power to those in government and defining a framework of mutual rights and duties. In Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes wrote, "the right of all sovereigns is derived from the consent of every one of those who are to be governed." This is a shift from authoritarianism to an early model of European and North American democracy where police powers and the system of punishment are means to a more just end.

Bentham
In this context, the most relevant idea was known as the "felicitation principle", i.e. that whatever is done should aim to give the greatest happiness to the largest possible number of people in society. Bentham argued that there had been "punishment creep", i.e. that the severity of punishments had slowly increased so that the death penalty was then imposed for more than two hundred offences. It had therefore become counter-productive because it produced an incentive to kill any possible witnesses to every crime to reduce the risk of arrest. Bentham posited that man is a calculating animal who will weigh potential gains against the pain likely to be imposed. If the pain outweighs the gains, he will be deterred and this produces maximal social utility. Therefore, in a rational system, the punishment system must be graduated so that the punishment more closely matches the crime. Punishment is not retribution or revenge because that is morally deficient: the hangman is paying the murder the compliment of imitation. But the concept is problematic because it depends on two critical assumptions:
if deterrence is going to work, the potential offender must always act rationally whereas much crime is a spontaneous reaction to a situation or opportunity; and
if the system graduates a scale of punishment according to the seriousness of the offence, it is assuming that the more serious the harm likely to be caused, the more the criminal has to gain.
In this context, note Bentham's proposal for a prison design called the "panopticon" which, apart from its surveillance system included the right of the prison manager to use the prisoners as contract labour.

Beccaria
In 1764, he published Dei Deliti e Delle Pene ("On Crimes and Punishments") arguing for the need to reform the criminal justice system by referring not to the harm caused to the victim, but to the harm caused to society. In this, he posited that the greatest deterrent was the certainty of detection: the more swift and certain the punishment, the more effective it would be. It would also allow a less serious punishment to be effective if shame and an acknowledgement of wrongdoing was a guaranteed response to society's judgment. Thus, the prevention of crime was achieved through a proportional system that was clear and simple to understand, and if the entire nation united in their own defence. His approach influenced the codification movement which set sentencing tariffs to ensure equality of treatment among offenders. Later, it was acknowledged that not all offenders are alike and greater sentencing discretion was allowed to judges. Thus, punishment works at two levels. Because it punishes individuals, it operates as a specific deterrence to those convicted not to reoffend. But the publicity surrounding the trial and the judgment of society represented by the decision of a jury of peers, offers a general example to the public of the consequences of committing a crime. If they are afraid of similarly swift justice, they will not offend.
Spiritual explanation of crime
Spiritualistic understandings of crime stem from an understanding of life in general, that finds most things in life are destiny and cannot be controlled, we are born either good or bad and all our actions are decided by a higher being. People have held such beliefs for all of recorded history, “primitive people regarded natural disasters such as famines, floods and plagues as punishments for wrongs they had done to the spiritual powers”.[1] These spiritual powers gained strength during the middle ages as they bonded with the feudal powers to create the criminal justice systems. Under a spiritualistic criminal justice system, crime was a private affair that was conducted between the offender and the victim’s family. However this method proved to be too revengeful, as the state took control of punishment. Spiritual explanations provided an understanding of crime when there was no other way of explaining crime. However, the problem with this understanding is it cannot be proven true, so it was never be accepted.

Commentary

The idea of man as a calculating animal requires the view of crime as a product of a free choice by offenders. The question for policy makers is therefore how to use the institutions of the state to influence citizens to choose not to offend. This theory emerged at the time of the Enlightenment and it entirely consistent that it should focus on rationality. But, because it lacks sophistication, it was operationalised in a mechanical way, assuming that there is a mathematics of deterrence, i.e. a proportional calculation undertaken first by policy makers and then by potential offenders. This School believed that there are constants of value in pain and gain that can swing a decision to offend or not to offend. But not everyone is the same nor has the same view of what constitutes a price worth paying. It also had a certain utopianism in assuming that the policing system could rapidly grow and deliver a better service of investigation and detection. If certainty of punishment is to be achieved, there must be a major investment in policing.
As other Schools of thought developed, Classicism slowly grew less popular. But it has seen revival through the Neo-Classical School and the theories of Right Realism such as the Rational Choice Theory.

Reference

Andrews, Richard Mowery. "The Cunning of Imagery: Rhetoric and Ideology in Cesare Beccaria’s Treatise On Crimes and Punishments." In Begetting Images: Studies in the Art and Science of Symbol Production, edited by Mary B. Campell and Mark Rollins. New York: Peter Lang, 1989.
——————. Law, Magistracy, and Crime in Old Regime Paris, 1735–1789, volume I, The System of Criminal Justice. See 441-72. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana. An Essay on Crimes and Punishments. [1764]. 2nd American edition. Translated from the Italian by Anonymous. Philadelphia: Philip H. Nicklin, 1819. [Archive]
Beccaria, Cesare. On Crimes and Punishments. [1764]. Translated from the Italian by Richard Davies and Virginia Cox. In On Crimes and Punishments and Other Writings, edited by Richard Bellamy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
——————. On Crimes and Punishments. [1764]. Translated from the Italian by David Young. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett, 1986.
——————. "A Discourse on Public Economy and Commerce." [1769]. Included as "Inaugural Lecture" in Cesare Beccaria, On Crimes and Punishments and Other Writings, edited by Richard Bellamy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. [WWW].
Beirne, Piers. "Towards a Science of Homo Criminalis: Cesare Beccaria’s Dei Delitti e Delle Pene." [1991]. In Inventing Criminology: Essays on the Rise of ‘Homo Criminalis’. Albany: SUNY Press, 1993.
Bentham, Jeremy. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation . [1789]. In A Bentham Reader, edited by Mary Peter Mack. New York: Pegasus Books, 1969. [WWW]
——————. The Rationale of Punishment. London: R. Heward, 1830. [WWW]
——————. The Rationale of Reward. London: John and H. L. Hunt, 1825. [WWW]
Cockburn, J. S. "Punishment and Brutalization in the English Enlightenment." Law and History Review 12 (1994): 155-79.
Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Translated from the French by Alan Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books, 1979. [See Part II.]
Fuller, Timothy. "Jeremy Bentham and James Mill." In History of Political Philosophy, edited by Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, 710-31. Third edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Geis, Gilbert. "Jeremy Bentham." In Pioneers of Criminology, edited by Hermann Mannheim. Montclair, New Jersey: Patterson Smith, 1972.
Hart, H. L. A. "Bentham and Beccaria." In Essays on Bentham, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982.
Maestro, Marcello T. Cesare Beccaria and the Origins of Penal Reform. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1973.
——————. Gaetano Filangieri and his Science of Legislation. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1976.
——————. Voltaire and Beccaria as Reformers of Criminal Law. New York: Columbia University Press, 1942.
Manzoni, Alessandro. The Column of Infamy, Prefaced by Cesare Beccaria’s "Of Crimes and Punishments." Translated from the Italian by Kenelm Foster, O. P. and Jane Grigson, with an Introduction by A. P. d’Entrêves. London: Oxford University Press, 1964
Vold, G. Bernard, T. and Snipes, J. (1998) Theoretical Criminology. Oxford University Press, Oxford

Term of Criminology

2006-08-27T16:45:00.003+07:00

Anthropometry: The attempt to derive character traits by measuring the human body. Anthropometrical approaches to crimininality include Lombroso's measurement of atavistic stigmata, and Sheldon's measurement of general physique, or "somatotype."

Atavism: Atavism refers to Lombroso's theory that while most individuals evolve, some devolve, becoming primitive or "atavistic". These evolutionary "throwbacks" are "born criminals," the most violent criminals in society. Born criminals could be identified through their atavistic stigmata. (For a good account of Lombroso's theories of atavism, see Gould's The Mismeasure of Man, pages 151-75.)

Celerity: Swiftness. Beccaria argues that in order to be an effective deterrent, punishments must possess celerity. A punishment that occurs quickly after the crime helps to form a strong connection between the punishment and the crime in the minds of the general public, so that whenever a citizen contemplates a criminal act, he will instantly recall the punishment and weigh it into his deliberation. See also certainty and severity.

Certainty: According to Beccaria, a punishment must be certain to follow from the crime in order to be an effective deterrent. The greater the extent to which a would-be offender thinks that she can get away with a crime, the less she will weigh the punishment into her deliberation of whether or not to commit the crime. See also celerity and severity, or play the proportionality game!

Constitutional Theories: Theories such as Lombroso's or Sheldon's that locate the origins of criminality in a person's biological or psychological make-up. Refers to one's physical constitution (not a legal constitution).

Culture: The development of criminology to some degree can be told as the story of a deepening understanding of culture. For early sociological criminologists—and for many today—'culture' is primarily understood as the values and goals that orient individual actors. Many subcultural and labeling theorists deepen this understanding, seeing a 'culture' as the understandings and behaviors that arise, in the words of Howard Becker, ". . . in response to a problem faced in common by a group of people . . ." (Outsiders, 81). Finally, recent criminologists—especially feminist and critical criminologists—view culture very broadly, as the beliefs and values, tastes and interests, knowledge, behavior, and even the very ways that individuals conceive their of 'selves'. Culture, in short, has come to be seen as the fabric out of which the social is made.

Deterrence: A strategy of punishment associated with the Classical School. Deterrence can either be specific, punishing an individual so that she won't commit a crime again, or general, punishing an individual to set an example to society, so that others will not commit the same crime. For the Classical School, punishment was primarily justified in terms of general deterrence. See also Retribution, Rehabilitation, and Incapacitation.

Etiology: The study of the causes or origins of behavior. Positivist approaches to criminology are characterized by their interest in determining the etiology of criminal behavior.

"Ex-Post Facto": Laws that apply retroactively, that is, to punish actions conducted before they were pronounced illegal.

Free Will: For Beccaria and the classical school, even though people are hedonistic, they also possess reason, and can therefore calculate the course of action that is really in their self-interest. This gives them a degree of freedom over their situation.

Hedonism: The idea held by the classical school, that people only act according to what they find pleasurable and in their self-interest. See also Free Will/Reason.

Incapacitation: A strategy of punishment associated with positivist approaches to criminology. Sick offenders are removed from society (institutionalized or imprisoned) if they cannot be cured and rehabilitated, in order to protect society from harm. See also Deterrence and Retribution.

Positivism: In criminology, 'positivism' has two meanings. (1) Specifically, it refers to the evolutionary assumptions and scientific methods of the 'positivist school' of criminology. (2) More generally, it is used to characterize all approaches to criminology that are primarily concerned with questions of etiology, and which believe that social phenomena can and should be explained in the manner of the natural sciences. And the origins of the term? Talk to Comte.

"Promoting the Greatest Good for the Greatest Number . . .": The purpose of laws and punishments for the classical school. Thinkers differ, however, on who the "greatest number" are. For Beccaria and other thinkers who believed that the state should be conceived as a social contract, this meant that because the state was created by a decision made by each one of its citizens, it was obligated to produce the greatest good shared equally among all of its citizens. For Bentham, whose utilitarianism accepted that the purpose of legislation should be "promoting the greatest happiness for the greatest number" but rejected the idea of the social contract, the "greatest number" could mean the greatest good for the majority of people in society. . . so that the interests of particular individuals might need to be sacrificed for the greater social good. See The Social Contract Exercise to learn how the social contract can be used to argue for social and legal equality.

Proportionality: The Classical School believed that punishments could only deter if they were "proportional" to their crime, where proportionality means (1) that the severity of punishments correspond to the severity of the harm done by the crime, so that more serious crimes receive more serious punishments, and (2) that the type of punishment resembles the crime, so that others in society can best associate the punishment with the crime (see general deterrence). Beccaria further argues that proportionality is the only punishment that is morally acceptable according to the social contract. Examine Beccaria's arguments and play The Proportionality Game... or go straight to chapter 6 of Beccaria's On Crimes and Punishments!

Reciprocal Obligation: The basis of the social contract according to The Classical School. Because people are hedonistic, driven by their self-interest, yet rational, capable of rationally considering what is really in their self-interest, they will come to the conclusion that life is more pleasurable with a degree of security—attained by everyone in society promising not to act in ways that will harm others. These "reciprocal obligations"—the promises that all rational individuals would make in a society—can be considered a society's fundamental "social contract."

Rehabilitation: A strategy of punishment associated with positivist approaches to criminology. Offenders are understood to be sick; the state attempts to cure them and reintroduce them into society. See also Incapacitation, Retribution, and Deterrence.

Retribution: A justification for punishment that argues the guilty must be punished not, or not only, for instrumental ends, but because criminal actions simply 'deserve' to be punished. See also Deterrence, Rehabilitation, and Incapacitation.

Somatotyping: The derivation of behavioral types from particular forms of the body. Somatotyping was first applied to criminology by William Sheldon and Eleanor and Sheldon Glueck.

Severity: According to Beccaria, punishments ought to proportional in their severity. See also certainty and celerity, and Beccaria's arguments on proportionality.

Social Contract: The idea of Beccaria and other members of the Classical School that government can be thought of as created by its citizens for certain shared and common ends. "Social contract theory" uses this notion to determine when laws are just or unjust, by arguing that just laws ought to be thought of as promises that everyone in society would realize is in their best interest to make to one another. To examine this argument in more detail, see Beccaria's argument for a social contract!

Stigmata: As a term of medicine, 'stigmata' refers to the physical marks and characteristics that suggest an individual is abnormal. For Lombroso, 'atavistic stigmata' were those physical characteristics that suggested an individual to be atavistic. Such stigmata included abnormal skull sizes, hawk-like noses, large jaws and cheekbones, and fleshy lips.

Utilitarianism: Specifically, utilitarianism refers to the theory of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill that the overall utility or benefit produced by an action ought to be the standard by which we judge the worth or goodness of moral and legal action. More generally, utilitarian principles can be seen in the arguments of the early social contract theorists: the idea that government was utilitarian in nature followed from their understanding of human nature as hedonistic, and bringing about government because they realize it is in their benefit. See the social contract, "Promoting the Greatest Good for the Greatest Number," and instrumentalism.

* TERMS OF SOCIAL SCIENCE *

Correlates:

Epistemology: Strictly speaking, refers to philosophies or theories of the nature of knowledge. In social science, epistemology often refers to how individuals perceive "truth," and the social processes by which knowledge is constructed and accepted as "true."

Extrinsic: Existing outside of a thing.

Instrumental: Actions done to accomplish a greater consequence or end. For example, punishments carried out in the name of (general) deterrence punish particular individuals in order to prevent others in society from commiting the same actions; punishment teaches others in society a lesson. This is in contrast to retributionist justifications for punishments.

Inter-:

Intra-:

Macro-:

Micro-:

Reciprocal: Something exchanged, given, or owed between two or more individuals. According to The Classical School, the basis of order in society are those promises that every individual in society would make if they thought about it rationally, and therefore would make reciprocally.

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Courtesy of Crimetheory.com
© January 23, 2002